The
historical perspective of the industrial revolutions and the
production systems
Since
the industrial revolution during the 19th and 20th
century different production methods have dominated. On an overall
level these methods can be grouped as craftsmanship, mass production
and lean production, each with particular type of technology, work
organization, production solutions, how to handle different product
variants, and quality aspects.
Material
and processes to develop products have a very long history, that is
the case of casting, grinding, and forging which can be dated back
6000 years or more. The first attempts towards factory systems are
described from ancient Rome. The Romans had what could be called
factories to produce weapons, ceramic, glass ware, and some other
products. It was not until the 19th century that real
development towards the production systems of today started, when
what we can call factory systems were developed. This development is
frequently referred to as the industrial revolution.
Starting
with the first industrial revolution in the 18th century,
a big technical development occurred during the 19th and
20th century. The mechanization and automation in
machines, equipment and tools increased tremendously. The
prerequisites for mass production in the 20th century were
covered with machines producing identical components and the
utilization of capacity became an important factor to work with. The
consequences from that were a need to develop new methods for
planning of production, material supply and information.
The
first industrial revolution
It
took place during the period 1760-1830 with important changes that
affect the development of systems to produce products. Inventions
like the steam engine, the use of machine tools and the development
within the textile industry were remarkable. This happened in
parallel with the development of the fabrication system where factory
workers were organized based on new principles for division of labor.
This period also marks the transition from an economy based on
agriculture to an economy based on industrial activities.
A
significant discovery was the principle of division of labor that
consist in the separation of tasks in any system so that participants
may specialize. A great part of the changes carried our during the
19th and 20th century were based on this
principle.
Gradually
a need to coordinate, and also to control, the various operations
emerged and entire production process became centralized and located
in factory areas.
The
second industrial revolution
The
technical background to the development of the assembly system was
the introduction of standardized and interchangeable parts. While
England was leading the industrial revolution, the concept of
interchangeable parts was introduced in the United States. In 1797
Eli Whitney (1765-1825) negotiated with the American government and
received a contract for the production of 10,000 muskets. He believed
he could produce parts accurately enough to permit parts assembly
without fitting of each weapon. In this way the time required for
production could be considerable reduced. After several years of
development in his factory he traveled to Washington to demonstrate
the principle of interchangeable parts.
The
principle of interchangeable parts revolutionized the methods for
manufacturing and constituted a prerequisite for mass production.
Development of specialized production equipment made if possible to
produce identical components for the assembly of complete muskets.
Later on the manufacturing technique spread from the weapons industry
to Singer, the company manufacturing sewing machines.
Ford’s
production system from the early 20th century is often
associated with the introduction of the assembly line in the
manufacturing industry. The first movable assembly line in Ford’s
factory was put into operation in 1913, but technology had been
developed long before.
Key
elements of health and safety management
The
key elements for effective health and safety management are similar
to those considered in good quality, finance and general business
management. The principles of good and effective management provide a
sound basis for the improvement of health and safety performance. The
key elements involved in a successful health and safety management
system are:
Policy
A
clear health and safety policy is essential for business efficiency
and continuous improvement throughout the operation. The
policy should state the decision of the organization in terms of
clear aims, objectives and targets.
Organizing
A
well-defined organization is an essential component of a positive
health and safety culture. An effective organization will be noted
for good staff involvement and participation, high quality
communications, the promotion of competency, and the empowerment and
commitment of all employees to make informed contributions.
Planning
and implementing
An
effective health and safety plan involves the setting and
implementation of performance standards, targets and procedures. The
plan is based on risk assessment methods in order to set priorities
and objectives for the effective control or elimination hazards and
the reduction of risks. Measuring success requires the establishment
of practical plans and performance targets against which achievements
can be identified.
Measuring
performance
Include
both active and reactive monitoring to see the effectivity of the
health and safety management system. Active monitoring involves
looking at the premises, the people, procedures and systems. Reactive
monitoring discovers through investigation of accidents and incidents
why controls have failed. Measure the organization against its own
long term goals and objectives is also important.
Reviewing
performance
The
results of monitoring should be systematically reviewed to evaluate
the performance of the management system against the objectives and
targets established by the health and safety policy. Comparisons
should be made with internal performance indicators and if it is
possible with external performance indicators of similar
organizations.
Costs
of accidents
The
occurrence of any accident will cause both direct and indirect costs.
It is important that all of these costs are taken into account when
the full cost of an accident is calculated. Different studies shown
that indirect costs or hidden costs could be more than 30 times
greater than direct costs of an accident. In other words, the direct
costs of an accident or disease represent the tip of the iceberg when
compared to the overall costs.
Direct
costs
These
are costs that are directly related to the accident and may be
insured or uninsured.
Insured
direct costs, normally include:
- claims
on employers and public liability insurance
- damage
to buildings, equipment or vehicles
- any
attributable production and/or general business loss.
Uninsured
direct costs, normally include:
- fines
resulting from prosecution by the enforcement authority
- sick
pay
- some
damage to product, equipment, vehicles or process not directly
attributable to the accident (e.g. caused by replacement staff)
- increases
in insurance premiums resulting from the accident
- any
compensation not covered by the insurance policy due to an excess
agreed between the employer and the insurance company
- legal
representation following any compensation claim.
Indirect
costs
Indirect
costs are costs which may not be directly attributable to the
accident but may result from a series of accidents.
Insured
indirect costs, typically include:
- a
cumulative business loss
- product
or process liability claims
- recruitment
of certain replacement staff.
Uninsured
indirect costs, can include:
- loss
of goodwill and a poor corporate image
- accident
investigation time and any subsequent remedial action required
- production
delays
- extra
overtime payments
- lost
time for other employees, who attend to the needs of the injured
person
- the
recruitment and training of most replacement staff
- additional
administration time incurred
- lower
employee morale possibly leading to reduced productivity
Some
of the items mentioned above, such as business loss, may be
uninsurable or too prohibitively because of the big amount of money
required.
Basic
definitions related to occupational
health and safety
Some
basic and powerful definitions related to occupational health and
safety are the following:
Health
Related
to the protection of the bodies and minds of people from illness
resulting from the materials, processes or procedures used in the
workplace.
Safety
Related to the
protection of people from physical injury. The borderline between
health and safety is ill-defined and the two words are normally used
together to indicate concern for the physical and mental well-being
of the individual at the place of work.
Welfare
Related
to the provision of facilities to maintain the health and well-being
of individuals at the workplace. Welfare facilities include washing
and sanitation arrangements, the provision of drinking water,
heating, lighting, eating and rest rooms. First aid arrangements are
also considered as welfare facilities.
Occupational or
work-related ill-health
Is concerned with those
illnesses or physical and mental disorders that are either caused or
triggered by workplace activities. Such conditions may be induced by
the particular work activity of the individual or by activities of
others in the workplace. The time interval between exposure and the
onset of the illness may be short or long.
Environmental
protection
Related
to the arrangements to cover those activities in the workplace which
affect the environment and, possibly, the health and safety of
employees and others.
Accident
Defined
as any unplanned event that results in injury or ill health of
people, or damage or loss to property, plant, materials or the
environment or a loss of a business opportunity.
Near miss
Is any incident that
could have resulted in an accident.
Dangerous occurrence
It’s
a near miss which could have led to serious injury or loss of life.
Hazard and risk
A hazard is the
potential of a substance, activity or process to cause harm. Hazards
take many forms including, for example, chemicals, electricity and
working from a ladder.
A
risk is the likelihood of a substance, activity or process to cause
harm. A risk can be reduced and the hazard controlled by good
management.
The difference
between hazard and risk
It
is very important to distinguish between a hazard and a risk – the
two terms are often confused and activities such as construction work
are called high risk when they are high hazard. Although the hazard
will continue to be high, the risks will be reduced when controls are
implemented.
The residual risk
The level of risk
remaining when controls have been adopted is known as the residual
risk. There should only be high residual risk where there is poor
health and safety management and inadequate control measures.
About occupational health
and safety
Occupational health and safety is relevant in all branches of industry,
business and commerce including traditional industries, information technology
companies, care homes, schools, universities, leisure facilities and offices.
Occupational health and safety affects all aspects of work, that’s why high
hazard manufacturing plant requires many different specialists, such as
engineers (industrial, electrical, mechanical and civil), lawyers, medical
doctors and nurses, trainers, work planners and supervisors, may be required to
assist the professional health and safety practitioner in order to ensure that
there are satisfactory health and safety standards.
Generally, there are many obstacles in the process of achieve good
health and safety standards. The pressure of production or performance targets,
financial constraints and the complexity of the organization are typical
examples of such obstacles. However, there are powerful incentives for
organizations to strive for high health and safety standards. These incentives
are moral, legal and economic.
The corporate
responsibility and the relation with occupational health and safety
Corporate responsibility, a term used extensively in our days, covers a
wide range of issues. It includes the effects that an organization’s business
has on the environment, human rights and common welfare. Health and safety in
the workplace is an important corporate responsibility issue.
One
definition of corporate responsibility
Corporate responsibility has various definitions, however, broadly
speaking it covers the ways in which organizations manage their core business
to add social, environmental and economic value in order to produce a positive, sustainable impact on both society and the business
itself. Terms such as corporate social responsibility and socially responsible
business refer to this concept.
In terms of corporate responsibility, organizations must
work in order to:
- improve management systems to reduce
injuries and ill health
- demonstrate the importance of health and
safety issues at board level
- report publicly on health and safety
issues within their organization, including their performance against targets.
Effective management of health and safety:
- is vital to employee well-being
- has a role to play in enhancing the
reputation of businesses and helping them achieve high-performance teams
- is financially beneficial to business.
Industrial Accidents and
industrial safety
The industrialization
process has brought a large number of problems; one of them is related to
industrial accidents. With advances in industrial processes, new type of
dangers to life, limb and health are being increasingly introduced. Everyday
employees are injured in factories due to accidents. The accidents may be
caused as a result on any kind of unsafe activity, or act in their part or
chance occurrences, or as a result of some unsafe working conditions or unsafe
act of employees themselves, or defective plant or shop layout. The pain and
suffering of the injured as well as the emotional loss to the victims of the
accidents causing permanent disabilities are impossible to be summed up and
evaluated.
What’s the definition of
accident?
The most agreed definition
of accident is “It is an unplanned and uncontrolled event which causes or is
likely to cause an injury”.
Types of accidents in
industry
Accidents in industry can
be classified using different criteria. Specific classifications are shown in
the next lines.
According to causes of
events
Machine accidents
Machines are responsible
for a large number of accidents in an industry. Depending on the way harm is
caused, accidents from machines can be classified into the following groups:
- Contact: physical
contact of the body with any moving part of a machine;
- Impact: parts
of the body are violently hit by moving parts of machines;
- Traps: parts
of the body coming between the moving parts which mostly lead to crushing of
parts of body trapped;
- Ejection of particles: parts
projected at high velocity from the machine, which causes serious injury when
they hit the parts of the moving body.
Non machine accidents
In this type we include:
Fall of persons which can
be due to
- Tripping over obstacles on
ground
- Slipping due to oily or
greasy substances
- Running inside the shop,
sudden fear or excitement
Fall from a height which
can be due to
- Lack of firm foot hold or
unsafe postures
- Working on a machine at a
height
- Leaning from ladder to
reach a distant object
- Strike against the objects
- Pushes by other persons on
the slop
According to length of
recovery
- Lost time accidents:
lost time accidents are those in which worker loses a day or shift in which
accident occurred. These require payment of compensation to employee to
employer.
- Home-case accidents:
in this type of accidents, worker loses the remainder of shift or turn on which
the accident has occurred.
- First aid cases:
in these, workers receive first aid attention at plant hospital and then
returns to their job.
According to nature of
injury
- Fatal accidents:
in which the worker or more are killed.
- Permanent disablement:
which incapacitate an employee and makes it impossible for him to engage in any
work, which was capable of performing at the time of the accident.
- Temporary disablement:
this reduces the earning capacity of an individual in the employment.
Definition of safety and industrial hygiene
Safety
at work
According to Bestratén (1999), safety at work is
"the set of techniques and procedures that are designed to
eliminate or reduce the risk of accidents."
Therefore, safety
at work is concerned with addressing a number of hazards that affect
industrial accidents, such as:
- Lack
of mechanisms of protection against moving parts of machinery,
equipment and tools;
- Poor
conditions of order and cleanliness in the workplace;
To achieve safety at work, we should develop preventive
actions that fall within both general and specific rules, such as:
- The mission and vision of the company;
- The safety policies;
- Procedures at work;
- Staff training;
- Incorporation of
safety devices on machines, equipment and facilities.
Industrial
hygiene
According to Hernandez and Marti (1989), industrial
hygiene is the discipline that aims the prevention of occupational
diseases by controlling chemical, physical or biological agents in
the working environment.
The (chemical, physical or biological) agents
mentioned have effect in the workplace; not only directly for workers
who perform a particular task, but also for people from other areas
that are part of that environment. Moreover, the presence of these
agents also affects the external environment of the company like
nearby businesses, nearby communities and in general the soil, air
and water.
In order to reduce occupational risks of emerging
pollutants, three objectives are established:
Controls on the origin and source of danger;
Controls on the path between the hazard and the
worker;
Controls on the subject exposed to danger.
